World Journal of Applied Medical Sciences
World Journal of Applied Medical Sciences, ISSN: 3049-0200 (Online) is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal dedicated to the dissemination of academic and scientific research in the medical sciences. Published monthly by WASR Publication in India, the journal provides a platform for researchers and scholars to publish high-quality articles. All content is available online and published in English, making it accessible to a global audience.
Phytochemical Composition and Acute Toxicity of Aqueous Stem Bark Extract of Adenium obesum in African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)
The continued use of botanical piscicides for artisanal fishing has generated increasing concern regarding their potential impacts on non-target aquatic organisms. Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. is a well-known indigenous piscicidal plant in many parts of Africa due to its rich phytochemical composition. However, scientific information linking its phytochemical constituents with its acute toxicity in economically important freshwater fish remains limited. This study investigated the phytochemical composition and acute toxicity of the aqueous stem bark extract of A. obesum in juvenile of Clarias gariepinus. Fresh stem bark of A. obesum was collected, processed, and extracted using distilled water. Qualitative phytochemical screening was conducted using standard analytical methods to identify the major secondary metabolites present in the extract. Acute toxicity was evaluated using a 96-hour static bioassay in which juvenile C. gariepinus were exposed to six concentrations (0.0, 6.5, 8.0, 9.5, 11.0, and 12.5 mg/L) of the aqueous stem bark extract of A. obesum. Behavioural responses and mortality were recorded throughout the exposure period, and the 96-hour median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) was estimated by probit analysis. Proximate analysis showed that the stem bark contained predominantly nitrogen-free extract (54.62%), followed by crude fibre (21.34%), crude protein (9.10%), ash (7.75%), moisture (5.65%), and crude lipid (1.54%). Qualitative phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, steroids, flavonoids, terpenes, and tannins, indicating that the extract is rich in biologically active secondary metabolites. Fish exposed to the extract exhibited concentration-dependent behavioural alterations, including erratic swimming, increased opercular movement, excessive mucus secretion, loss of equilibrium, air gulping, reduced swimming activity, and respiratory distress. Mortality increased progressively with increasing extract concentration, while no mortality was observed in the control group. The estimated 96-hour LC₅₀ was 6.31 mg/L, indicating that the aqueous stem bark extract possesses high acute toxicity toward juvenile C. gariepinus. The aqueous stem bark extract of A. obesum contains diverse bioactive phytochemicals that are likely responsible for its pronounced ichthyotoxic activity. The concentration-dependent behavioural abnormalities and relatively low 96-hour LC₅₀ demonstrate that the extract is highly toxic to juvenile African catfish. These findings provide scientific evidence supporting the traditional use of A. obesum as a botanical piscicide while highlighting the potential ecological risks associated with its indiscriminate use in freshwater ecosystems. The study contributes valuable baseline information for environmental risk assessment and the sustainable management of inland fisheries.
Traditional Siddha Medicine and Emerging Microbial Infections A Review
Background: Urinary tract infections (UTIs) and infection-induced renal stone disease represent a significant clinical burden worldwide, particularly due to rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Proteus mirabilis is a key uropathogen implicated in struvite stone formation through urease-mediated urinary alkalinization and biofilm development, leading to recurrent infection and obstructive uropathy. Objective: This review aims to evaluate the role of traditional Siddha medicine in the management of Proteus-associated urinary tract infections and renal stone disease, with special emphasis on single herbal drugs, polyherbal formulations, and the herbo-mineral preparation Nandukkal Paspam, and to assess their antimicrobial and anti-lithogenic potential based on available scientific evidence. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Google Scholar, and AYUSH Research Portal for studies published between 2000 and 2025. Relevant classical Siddha texts, experimental studies, in vitro and in vivo research, phytochemical analyses, and molecular docking studies were included. Data were extracted and analyzed focusing on antimicrobial activity, anti-urease effects, anti-biofilm activity, and anti-urolithiatic potential. Results: Evidence indicates that Siddha single herbal drugs such as Phyllanthus emblica, Tribulus terrestris, and Aerva lanata exhibit antimicrobial, diuretic, and anti-urolithiatic properties. Polyherbal formulations including Kabasura Kudineer and Nilavembu Kudineer demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial and immunomodulatory effects. The herbo-mineral formulation Nandukkal Paspam shows potential litholytic and antimicrobial activity, particularly against urease-producing organisms such as Proteus spp., with possible inhibition of biofilm formation and crystal aggregation. Conclusion: Siddha medicinal interventions, particularly Nandukkal Paspam along with selected herbal and polyherbal formulations, may offer promising complementary strategies for managing Proteus-associated renal stone disease and UTIs. However, further pharmacological validation, toxicity assessment, and well-designed clinical trials are required to establish their safety, efficacy, and translational potential in modern healthcare.
Immunomodulatory Effects of Siddha Herbs in Infectious Diseases
Background: Infectious diseases remain a significant global health concern, particularly with the emergence of antimicrobial resistance and recurrent outbreaks of viral and bacterial infections. Strengthening host immune responses has become an important strategy in preventing and managing infectious diseases. The Siddha system of medicine, one of the oldest traditional medical systems practiced in South India, utilizes numerous medicinal herbs known for their immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. These herbs have traditionally been employed to enhance disease resistance and promote overall health. Objective: To review the immunomodulatory effects of Siddha medicinal herbs and evaluate their potential role in the prevention and management of infectious diseases. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and the AYUSH Research Portal. Relevant studies published between 2000 and 2025 were screened. Classical Siddha literature and government publications were also consulted. Studies reporting immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, and infection-related therapeutic activities of Siddha medicinal plants were included and critically analyzed. Results: The review identified several Siddha herbs with significant immunomodulatory potential, including Tinospora cordifolia (Seenthil), Andrographis paniculata (Nilavembu), Withania somnifera (Amukkara), Phyllanthus emblica (Nellikai), Ocimum tenuiflorum (Tulsi), and Piper longum (Thippili). These medicinal plants were found to enhance innate and adaptive immune responses through mechanisms such as macrophage activation, cytokine modulation, lymphocyte proliferation, natural killer cell stimulation, and antioxidant activity. In addition, many of these herbs exhibited direct antimicrobial and antiviral properties, supporting their traditional use in infectious disease management. Evidence from experimental, preclinical, and clinical studies suggests that Siddha herbs may improve host resistance to infections and reduce disease severity. Conclusion: Siddha medicinal herbs possess substantial immunomodulatory and antimicrobial properties that may contribute to the prevention and management of infectious diseases. Their multitarget mechanisms of action, combined with their traditional therapeutic relevance, make them promising candidates for integrative healthcare approaches. However, further well-designed clinical studies and standardization of herbal formulations are required to establish their efficacy, safety, and therapeutic applications in modern medicine.
Gut Microbial Modulation Through Siddha Herbal Medicines
Background: The human gut microbiota plays a crucial role in maintaining gastrointestinal health, immune function, metabolic regulation, and overall physiological homeostasis. Alterations in the composition and diversity of gut microbial communities, commonly known as dysbiosis, have been associated with a wide range of chronic diseases including inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions. Siddha medicine, one of the oldest traditional systems of medicine practiced in South India, utilizes numerous medicinal plants and herbal formulations that possess antimicrobial, prebiotic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. Recent scientific investigations suggest that these herbal medicines may influence gut microbial composition and function, thereby contributing to health promotion and disease prevention. Objective: This review aims to evaluate the role of Siddha herbal medicines in modulating gut microbiota and to examine their potential applications in maintaining gastrointestinal and systemic health. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using scientific databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and AYUSH research resources. Relevant studies published between 2000 and 2025 focusing on Siddha medicinal plants, gut microbiota, phytochemicals, microbial modulation, and microbiome-associated health outcomes were systematically analyzed. Information regarding medicinal plants, bioactive compounds, mechanisms of action, and therapeutic applications was extracted and synthesized. Results: The reviewed literature revealed that several Siddha medicinal plants, including Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellirica, Curcuma longa, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Tinospora cordifolia, and Azadirachta indica, possess significant microbiome-modulating properties. These plants contain bioactive phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and polysaccharides that promote the growth of beneficial microorganisms including Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species while suppressing pathogenic microbes. The findings further demonstrated that Siddha herbal medicines enhance short-chain fatty acid production, improve intestinal barrier integrity, reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, and support immune homeostasis. Their antimicrobial and prebiotic activities contribute to the restoration of microbial balance and may help prevent gut dysbiosis associated with various chronic diseases.
Ethnomicrobiological Importance of Siddha Medicine in Modern Healthcare
Background: Siddha medicine, one of the oldest traditional medical systems originating in South India, has been widely utilized for the prevention and treatment of various infectious and non-infectious diseases. The ethnomicrobiological aspects of Siddha medicine have gained increasing scientific attention due to the presence of antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties in its medicinal plants and formulations. The growing global challenge of antimicrobial resistance has further emphasized the need to explore traditional healthcare systems as potential sources of novel therapeutic agents. Objective: This review aims to evaluate the ethnomicrobiological importance of Siddha medicine in modern healthcare by examining the antimicrobial activities of Siddha medicinal plants, phytochemical constituents, traditional formulations, and their relevance in contemporary disease management. Methods: A comprehensive review of published literature was conducted using scientific databases and relevant scholarly sources. Studies investigating the antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, immunomodulatory, and microbiological properties of Siddha medicinal plants and formulations were critically analyzed. Information regarding bioactive phytochemicals, mechanisms of antimicrobial action, and potential healthcare applications was compiled and synthesized. Results: The reviewed evidence demonstrated that Siddha medicinal plants such as Azadirachta indica, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Curcuma longa, and Phyllanthus emblica exhibit significant antimicrobial activity against a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus species. Phytochemical constituents including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and saponins were identified as major contributors to these biological activities through mechanisms involving disruption of microbial cell structures and metabolic processes. Several Siddha formulations also demonstrated immunomodulatory effects, enhancement of host defense mechanisms, and potential microbiome-supportive properties. Furthermore, modern microbiological and pharmacological investigations have validated many traditional Siddha practices and highlighted their potential role in combating antimicrobial resistance. Conclusion: Siddha medicine possesses substantial ethnomicrobiological significance and offers valuable opportunities for the development of alternative antimicrobial therapies, natural healthcare products, and integrative medical approaches. The scientific validation of traditional Siddha knowledge supports its incorporation into modern healthcare systems and underscores its potential contribution to global health, infectious disease management, and antimicrobial drug discovery.
"Comparative Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Efficacy of Moringa oleifera and Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidr) Extracts against Gram-Positive, Gram-Negative Bacteria, and Fungi: An In Vitro Study"
The increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance has intensified the search for effective natural antimicrobial agents. This study aimed to compare the antimicrobial activity of Moringa oleifera and Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidr) leaf extracts against selected Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis), Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa), and fungi (Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger). Antimicrobial activity was evaluated using the agar well diffusion assay, while minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) were determined using standard microdilution methods. Statistical analysis was performed using two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's HSD test. Both plant extracts exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against all tested microorganisms; however, Z. spina-christi consistently demonstrated significantly greater efficacy than M. oleifera. Sidr produced larger inhibition zones, ranging from 10.2 ± 1.3 to 18.5 ± 1.2 mm, compared with 8.3 ± 0.9 to 14.2 ± 0.8 mm for Moringa. The strongest activity was observed against S. aureus (18.5 ± 1.2 mm) and C. albicans (17.4 ± 1.0 mm), whereas P. aeruginosa showed the lowest susceptibility. MIC values for Sidr ranged from 12.5 to 50.0 mg/mL, whereas Moringa required 25.0–100.0 mg/mL. Similarly, Sidr exhibited lower MBC/MFC values (25.0–100.0 mg/mL) than Moringa (50.0–200.0 mg/mL). The MBC/MIC ratio was 2.0 for both extracts against all microorganisms, indicating bactericidal and fungicidal activity. Two-way ANOVA revealed highly significant effects of plant type (F = 142.200, p < 0.001) and microbial category (F = 40.800, p < 0.001), whereas their interaction was not significant (p = 0.382). Tukey's HSD test confirmed the superior antimicrobial efficacy of Sidr over Moringa, with a mean increase in inhibition zone of 4.38 mm (p < 0.001), while Gram-positive bacteria were significantly more susceptible than Gram-negative bacteria and fungi. These findings demonstrate that Z. spina-christi possesses stronger antimicrobial activity than M. oleifera and represents a promising natural source of broad-spectrum antimicrobial compounds for potential pharmaceutical and food preservation applications.
Revitalizing Siddha Antimicrobial Knowledge for Modern Medical Applications
Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a major global health threat, leading to reduced effectiveness of existing antibiotics and increased burden of infectious diseases worldwide. The rapid rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens and the lack of new antimicrobial agents have intensified the need for alternative therapeutic strategies. Traditional Siddha medicine, one of the oldest indigenous systems of medicine from South India, contains a rich repository of herbal, mineral, and herbo-mineral formulations with historical use in infectious diseases. Classical preparations such as Linga Chendooram, Vishnu Chakara Mathirai, and Adathodai Manapagu are increasingly being explored for their antimicrobial potential. Objective: To systematically review the antimicrobial potential of selected Siddha formulations and evaluate available scientific evidence supporting their activity against pathogenic and multidrug-resistant microorganisms, with emphasis on their relevance to modern antimicrobial drug discovery and integrative medicine. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, SpringerLink, and AYUSH Research Portal covering studies published from 2000 to 2025. Classical Siddha texts, in vitro and in vivo studies, phytochemical analyses, molecular docking studies, and relevant review articles were included. Data related to antimicrobial activity, phytoconstituents, mechanisms of action, and clinical relevance were extracted and analyzed. Results: Available evidence indicates that Linga Chendooram, Vishnu Chakara Mathirai, and Adathodai Manapagu exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including multidrug-resistant strains such as MRSA and ESBL-producing organisms. Reported mechanisms include disruption of microbial cell membranes, inhibition of biofilm formation, suppression of quorum sensing, antioxidant effects, and immunomodulatory actions. The presence of bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, phenolics, and mineral-based constituents contributes to their therapeutic potential in infectious diseases. Conclusion: Siddha formulations demonstrate promising antimicrobial potential, particularly against MDR pathogens, and may serve as valuable candidates for future drug discovery and adjunct therapy. However, limited clinical evidence necessitates further pharmacological validation, toxicity assessment, and well-designed clinical trials to establish safety and efficacy for modern medical applications.
Evidence-Based Siddha Antimicrobial Research (Kunmakudori Mezhugu) for Translational Medicine
Background: Helicobacter pylori infection is one of the most common chronic bacterial infections worldwide and is strongly associated with chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma, and gastric cancer. The increasing prevalence of antibiotic-resistant H. pylori strains has reduced the effectiveness of conventional eradication therapies, necessitating the exploration of alternative and complementary antimicrobial strategies. Siddha medicine, a traditional medical system practiced in South India, offers a rich repository of herbal and herbo-mineral formulations for the management of gastrointestinal disorders. Among these, Kunmakudori Mezhugu has traditionally been used for conditions resembling chronic gastritis, gastric ulceration, and digestive disturbances, making it a potential candidate for antimicrobial drug research and translational medicine applications. Objective: To review the available evidence regarding the antimicrobial potential of Kunmakudori Mezhugu and its constituent ingredients against Helicobacter pylori, and to evaluate its relevance in translational medicine and antimicrobial drug development. Materials and Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, SpringerLink, MEDLINE, and the AYUSH Research Portal. Classical Siddha texts, pharmacological studies, microbiological investigations, phytochemical analyses, molecular docking studies, and translational medicine reports published between 2000 and 2025 were systematically reviewed. Information related to phytochemical composition, antimicrobial activity, anti-H. pylori effects, urease inhibition, anti-biofilm properties, antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory effects, and gastroprotective mechanisms was extracted and synthesized. Results: The reviewed evidence demonstrated that the medicinal ingredients associated with Kunmakudori Mezhugu contain diverse bioactive compounds including flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds, glycosides, and saponins. These phytochemicals exhibited antimicrobial activity through multiple mechanisms, including inhibition of bacterial growth, suppression of urease activity, disruption of biofilm formation, interference with bacterial adhesion, and modulation of virulence factors. In addition to direct antimicrobial effects, the formulation's constituent ingredients demonstrated significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and gastroprotective properties that may contribute to the management of H. pylori-associated gastric disorders. Molecular docking studies further supported the interaction of plant-derived compounds with key H. pylori targets such as urease, DNA gyrase, and adhesins, highlighting their potential as lead molecules for antimicrobial drug development.
Interdisciplinary Perspectives in Siddha Microbiology and Infectious Disease Research
Background: Infectious diseases continue to represent a significant global health burden despite advances in microbiology, antimicrobial therapy, and public health interventions. The emergence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms, newly emerging pathogens, and recurrent infectious disease outbreaks has intensified the need for innovative and multidisciplinary approaches to disease prevention and management. Siddha medicine, one of the oldest traditional systems of medicine practiced in South India, possesses extensive knowledge related to infectious diseases, antimicrobial therapies, immune regulation, and preventive healthcare. Increasing scientific interest has led to the investigation of Siddha medicinal plants and formulations using modern microbiological, immunological, pharmacological, and molecular research methodologies, creating opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration. Objective: To review the interdisciplinary contributions of Siddha medicine to microbiology and infectious disease research, evaluate the scientific evidence supporting Siddha-based antimicrobial and immunomodulatory interventions, and explore their relevance in contemporary biomedical sciences. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, SpringerLink, MEDLINE, and the AYUSH Research Portal. Publications from 2000 to 2025 were screened and analyzed. Classical Siddha texts, microbiological studies, immunological investigations, phytochemical analyses, molecular docking studies, clinical research, and review articles related to Siddha medicine and infectious diseases were included. Information regarding medicinal plants, traditional formulations, antimicrobial mechanisms, immunological effects, and interdisciplinary research applications was systematically extracted and synthesized. Results: The review identified substantial evidence supporting the antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities of several Siddha medicinal plants, including Andrographis paniculata (Nilavembu), Tinospora cordifolia (Seenthil), Azadirachta indica (Veppam), Ocimum tenuiflorum (Tulsi), Phyllanthus emblica (Nellikai), Terminalia chebula (Kadukkai), and Withania somnifera (Amukkara). These medicinal plants contain diverse bioactive phytochemicals capable of inhibiting microbial growth, modulating host immune responses, suppressing microbial virulence factors, and preventing biofilm formation. Modern microbiological investigations demonstrated activity against a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms, including multidrug-resistant bacteria. Interdisciplinary approaches involving molecular biology, bioinformatics, metabolomics, systems pharmacology, and immunology have facilitated the identification of active compounds, elucidation of antimicrobial mechanisms, and scientific validation of traditional Siddha therapeutic practices. Siddha formulations such as Nilavembu Kudineer and Kabasura Kudineer have also demonstrated potential immunomodulatory and supportive therapeutic effects in infectious disease management.
Ethnomicrobiology in Siddha Medicine Bridging Indigenous Knowledge and Modern Science
Background: Ethnomicrobiology is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates indigenous medical knowledge with modern microbiological science to identify potential antimicrobial agents from traditional medicinal systems. Siddha medicine, one of the oldest systems of South India, extensively utilizes single herbal formulations (Oru Thavaram) and rare ethnobotanical plants for the management of infectious diseases. In the era of rising antimicrobial resistance, such traditional knowledge systems are gaining renewed scientific importance. Objective: To explore the ethnomicrobiological relevance of Siddha medicine by evaluating selected single herbal medicinal plants and rare ethnobotanical species for their antimicrobial potential and their role in bridging indigenous knowledge with modern science. Materials and Methods: A narrative evidence-based review was conducted using scientific databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, MEDLINE, SpringerLink, and AYUSH Research Portal. Classical Siddha literature and ethnobotanical sources were also reviewed. Studies published between 2000 and 2025 reporting antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, or immunomodulatory activities of selected Siddha medicinal plants were included. Data on phytochemical composition, antimicrobial spectrum, and mechanisms of action were systematically extracted and synthesized. Results: The review identified significant antimicrobial potential among commonly used Siddha single herbal plants such as Azadirachta indica, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Aloe vera, Phyllanthus emblica, and Tinospora cordifolia. Additionally, rare ethnobotanical plants including Salacia reticulata, Gymnema sylvestre, Aegle marmelos, Syzygium cumini, and Rauvolfia serpentina demonstrated promising antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activities. These plants contain diverse phytochemicals such as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, and glycosides that act through multiple mechanisms including membrane disruption, inhibition of microbial enzymes, suppression of virulence factors, and prevention of biofilm formation. The findings highlight strong concordance between traditional Siddha ethnomicrobiological knowledge and recent scientific evidence supporting multi-target antimicrobial action. Conclusion: Siddha ethnomicrobiology provides a valuable bridge between indigenous knowledge and modern antimicrobial drug discovery. Both commonly used and rare medicinal plants exhibit significant antimicrobial potential; however, further standardization, mechanistic studies, and clinical validation are essential for translational application.
Modern Microbiological Validation of the Antiviral Potential of Siddha Formulation Santha Santhrothaiya Tablet Against Hepatitis B Virus: A Review
Background: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a major global health concern, contributing significantly to chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Despite effective vaccines and antiviral agents, complete viral eradication remains challenging due to viral persistence, drug resistance, and limited therapeutic options. This has increased interest in alternative and complementary therapies derived from traditional medical systems. Objective: This review aims to evaluate the antiviral potential of the Siddha formulation Santha Santhrothaiya Tablet against HBV through modern microbiological validation approaches and to explore its relevance in contemporary antiviral drug discovery. Materials and Methods: An evidence-based narrative review was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and AYUSH Research Portal. Classical Siddha texts and official pharmacopeias were also reviewed. Studies published between 2000 and 2025 related to antiviral activity, hepatoprotective effects, phytochemical analysis, molecular docking, and microbiological validation of Siddha-relevant herbs were included. Data were extracted and synthesized qualitatively. Results: The review identified that Siddha formulation Santha Santhrothaiya Tablet contains bioactive phytochemicals with reported antiviral, immunomodulatory, and hepatoprotective properties. Key constituents such as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, and polyphenols demonstrated potential to inhibit HBV replication, suppress viral enzymes, and modulate host immune responses. In silico studies indicated strong binding affinity of plant-derived compounds to HBV polymerase and related viral targets. Additionally, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects contribute to hepatocyte protection. However, direct experimental validation of the complete formulation against HBV remains limited. Conclusion: Siddha-based formulation Santha Santhrothaiya Tablet shows promising antiviral potential against HBV through multi-target mechanisms. Further standardized preclinical and clinical studies are required to validate its efficacy and support its integration into modern antiviral therapeutic strategies.
Innovative Use of Dermal Substitute for Salvage of Exposed Lower Leg Implant
Management of exposed orthopedic implants in patients with diabetes and peripheral atherosclerotic disease is particularly challenging due to compromised vascularity, increased risk of infection, and limited reconstructive options. Flap coverage is considered the gold standard for such defects; however, in certain high-risk patients, flap reconstruction may not be feasible. Dermal substitutes have emerged as a promising alternative in selected cases, offering a less invasive option for achieving soft tissue coverage and limb salvage. Here is a case of old age female patient with exposed implant in lower leg covered with dermal substitute.
Diabetes mellitus plus atherosclerotic limb
Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B Virus Markers among Pregnant Women at the Cité-verte District Hospital in Yaoundé Cameroon
Background: Chronic Hepatitis B virus (HBV) remains a critical global health threat, with sub-Saharan Africa facing a disproportionate burden of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT). In Cameroon, localized data on the full spectrum of HBV serological markers is essential to refine prevention strategies. This study aimed to determine the seroprevalence of five HBV markers and identify factors influencing neonatal health security. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from March to November 2025 at the Cite-verte District Hospital in Yaoundé. Convenience sampling was used to recruit 214 pregnant women. HBV markers (HBsAg, HBeAg, anti-HBs, anti-HBc, anti-HBe) were screened using rapid diagnostic tests and confirmed via ELISA. Data were analyzed using Fisher's exact test and Odds Ratios (OR) with a significance level of p < 0.05. Results: HBsAg seroprevalence was 16.4%, with 51.4% of these cases being HBeAg-positive, indicating high infectivity. All HBsAg and HBeAg positive cases were concentrated in the second trimester (p < 0.001). Primiparous women were significantly more likely to be HBsAg-positive (74.3%; p = 0.004). Blood transfusion was identified as a massive risk factor for transmissibility (OR = 41.56; 95% CI [12.69–136.12]; p < 0.001). No co-infections with HCV or HDV were detected. Conclusion: The high endemicity (16.4%) and significant HBeAg positivity pose a severe silent threat for vertical transmission in Yaoundé. These findings advocate for mandatory second-trimester screening and the integration of antiviral prophylaxis for high-risk mothers to ensure neonatal health security.
Analyzing the Strategic Role of Religious Leadership in Shaping and Facilitating Sustainable Peace Processes: A case study of Liberia
This study provides an in-depth analysis of the strategic role of religious leaders in shaping and facilitating sustainable peace processes, using Liberia as a case study to explore the dynamics of faith-based interventions in conflict resolution. Liberia’s experience during and after its protracted civil wars (1989-1997 and 1999-2003) highlights the transformative potential of religious leaders as essential actors in mediating peace and promoting reconciliation. Building on the collective efforts of Christian and Muslim leaders through the Interfaith Council of Liberia (IRCL), the research highlights how these leaders have exercised their moral authority, cultural resonance, and interfaith cooperation to mediate dialogue between warring factions, safeguard ceasefires, and promote inclusiveness. framework for sustainable peace. The study uses a qualitative case study methodology, historical narrative synthesis, semi-structured interviews with key actors, and policy analysis to elucidate the mechanisms and strategies used by religious leaders in Liberia. Central themes explored include their ability to mobilize grassroots groups, address deep-rooted sociocultural grievances, and serve as neutral mediators in a context of extreme polarization and distrust. The findings also reveal how their advocacy has expanded beyond political negotiations to include humanitarian support, community reconstruction, and moral reorientation aimed at fostering forgiveness and coexistence. In addition, the research critically examines the challenges facing religious leaders, such as managing political interference, resource constraints, and balancing interfaith unity and doctrinal differences. Despite these challenges, the study shows that their continued engagement and strategic interventions laid the foundation for immediate conflict mitigation and long-term peacebuilding. Interfaith cooperation in the IRCL has not only bridged religious divisions, but has also set a precedent for inclusive governance and social cohesion in post-conflict Liberia. This case study advances the broader discourse on the role of religious leadership in conflict resolution, highlighting its potential as a complementary force to traditional peacebuilding efforts led by the state and the international community. By integrating religious leaders into formal peace processes and policy frameworks, societies can leverage their unique moral legitimacy, popular influence and capacity for reconciliation to resolve entrenched conflicts. The findings provide valuable insights for researchers, policy makers, and practitioners in the fields of peace studies, conflict resolution, and governance, providing a replicable model for using faith-based leadership in conflict-like contexts. global scale.
Exploring the Role of Ecclesiastical Institutions in Augmenting Antiretroviral Drug Distribution: A Critical Examination of Faith-Based Health Interventions
The distribution of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs is essential to combat the HIV/AIDS epidemic, as it has a direct impact on disease management, prevention, and the overall quality of life of people living with HIV. While government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have been at the forefront of ARV distribution, church-based institutions have increasingly demonstrated their potential as essential partners in health service delivery, particularly in resource-limited communities. This study explores the multifaceted role of faith-based organizations (FBOs) in ARV drug distribution through an in-depth examination of faith-based health interventions. Using qualitative and quantitative research methodologies, the study examines how churches leverage their extensive local networks, high levels of trust among local populations, and their spiritual authority to address key challenges of ARV distribution. These include reducing stigma and discrimination related to HIV/AIDS, improving access to healthcare in remote or marginalized areas, and filling gaps in health infrastructure and human resources. The study also identifies innovative models of care used by faith-based organizations, such as mobile clinics, community health programs, and the integration of spiritual counseling with medical care, which contribute to a more holistic approach to treating HIV. Despite these contributions, the study highlights some ongoing challenges. These include limited financial and logistical resources, inconsistencies in the quality of care, reliance on external funding, and lack of systematic integration into national health strategies. In addition, theological and cultural perspectives within faith-based settings sometimes inadvertently perpetuate stigma, necessitating strategic interventions to connect religious doctrines with public health goals. The findings highlight the need for structured partnerships between church-based institutions, government health systems, and international health organizations to maximize the impact of ARV distribution. By fostering collaboration, providing capacity-building initiatives, and ensuring alignment with broader health policies, faith-based institutions can play a transformative role in promoting equitable access to ARVs and improving health outcomes for people living with HIV/AIDS. This study highlights the critical importance of leveraging the unique strengths of faith-based organizations while addressing their limitations to optimize health care delivery in the context of HIV/AIDS.
Transformative Policy Innovations for Mitigating HIV Drug Resistance: Integrating Genomic Insights and Global Health Strategies
HIV drug resistance is a major obstacle in the global fight against the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The rise of resistant viral strains threatens the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy (ART). This situation increases treatment costs and negatively affects patient outcomes. This paper looks at new policy ideas to reduce HIV drug resistance by combining genomic insights with global health strategies. Improvements in genomic tracking and molecular epidemiology have made it possible to detect resistance-related mutations early. This offers valuable chances for personalized treatment plans and evidence-based public health actions. The study discusses how genomic data can shape treatment guidelines, improve surveillance systems, and aid focused prevention efforts. It also stresses the need for international cooperation, fair access to diagnostic tools, ongoing healthcare funding, and skill development in low-resource areas. By connecting scientific advancements with policy change, this paper suggests a clear plan for lowering HIV drug resistance and enhancing long-term treatment results. The findings show that merging genomic technologies with national and global HIV initiatives is crucial for controlling the epidemic sustainably and meeting global health targets.
Evaluating Advanced Stochastic Modeling for Estimating the Long-Term Demographic Impact of HIV: Methodologies and Policy Implications
The long-term demographic impact of HIV remains a major public health issue, as the epidemic continues to shape the health, economic, and social landscapes of many parts of the world. This study systematically evaluates a range of advanced stochastic modeling techniques for estimating the demographic consequences of HIV, highlighting their applicability, accuracy and relevance to inform policy decisions. Given the complexity of the HIV epidemic, characterized by uncertainty, non-linear relationships, and the impact of different and evolving intervention strategies, sophisticated models are essential to generate reliable projections. We explore a range of stochastic methods, including Monte Carlo simulations, Markov chains, and agent-based models, each of which offers unique strengths in capturing the stochastic nature of disease progression, transmission dynamics, and effects at the population level. The article also examines how these models can be used to predict key demographic outcomes such as life expectancy, population growth, fertility rates, mortality and morbidity trends in affected regions. out of proportion by HIV. Through comparative analysis, we assess the accuracy of these models in predicting the trajectory of the epidemic over several decades, taking into account factors such as the availability of antiretroviral therapy (ART), prevention efforts, and the evolution of high-risk behaviors. One of the central themes of the study is the role of population projections in the development of public health strategies. By linking the results of stochastic models to policy needs, we examine how these projections can inform decisions related to health care planning, resource allocation, and intervention prioritization. In particular, the article highlights the importance of integrating demographic knowledge into public health frameworks, ensuring that interventions are not only responsive to immediate needs, but also sustainable in the face of future uncertainties. The study also addresses the broader implications of these models for healthcare infrastructure, emphasizing the need for strategic planning in the allocation of resources such as health personnel, facilities, and treatment programs. The models provide valuable insights into how to optimize the delivery of interventions to achieve the greatest demographic impact. In addition, the article examines the role of stochastic modeling in assessing the effectiveness of HIV prevention programs and their potential to reduce new infections, improve health outcomes, and prevent new demographic disruptions. Finally, the article advocates for the adoption of flexible and adaptable modeling frameworks that can evolve as the HIV epidemic landscape evolves. These frameworks should be designed to incorporate new data, reflect the impact of emerging health technologies, and adapt to changing population dynamics. By providing a comprehensive approach to population forecasting, this study highlights the need for dynamic, evidence-based policy responses that can address the long-term challenges of HIV and ensure that interventions are effective and sustainable in combating the epidemic.
Assessing a Mathematical Model of HIV Transmission Dynamics: A Case Study on Commercial Sex Workers and Injection Drug Users in Lusaka
The global HIV epidemic continues to pose significant public health challenges, particularly in urban areas where high-risk populations are concentrated. In many settings, interactions between sex workers and people who inject drugs contribute substantially to the dynamics of HIV transmission. This study develops and evaluates a mathematical model that aims to understand the complex interaction of these interactions in the context of Lusaka, Zambia. Using demographic, behavioral and epidemiological data, the study uses a compartmental modeling approach to simulate transmission pathways and analyze the impact of targeted intervention strategies. Key factors that support HIV transmission are examined, including behavioral patterns such as inconsistent condom use among sex workers, the frequency of needle-sharing practices among drug users for injection, and the overlap between these populations. The model incorporates heterogeneity in population dynamics and identifies the most influential parameters through sensitivity analysis. This approach allows us to explore the robustness of the model and its response to changes in intervention scenarios. Numerical simulations are conducted to assess the potential effects of various public health interventions, including harm reduction programs for IDUs, widespread condom distribution, and expanded access to antiretroviral treatment (ART). The results show that a combination of interventions can significantly reduce HIV transmission rates among these high-risk groups. For example, scaling up harm reduction programs for IDUs, combined with continued promotion of condom use among sex workers, results in a marked decrease in new infections. The study also highlights the importance of ART as an essential tool not only for treatment, but also for reducing viral load and subsequent transmission risks. This research highlights the utility of mathematical modeling to capture the subtleties of HIV transmission dynamics, particularly in urban settings characterized by unique socio-behavioral factors. Furthermore, the findings provide actionable information for public health policy, advocating for integrated and context-specific strategies to address the HIV epidemic in Lusaka and similar settings. The study highlights the role of mathematical modeling as an essential framework to inform evidence-based interventions and advance the global fight against HIV.
Analyzing how early marriage affects access to education, particularly for young girls, and proposing solutions to mitigate this issue
Early marriage remains a widespread problem that prevents girls from accessing education, particularly in developing regions where cultural, economic and social factors combine to perpetuate the practice. Deep-rooted cultural norms, poverty and systemic gender inequality often prioritize early marriage roles over girls’ education and personal development. This dynamic leads to high dropout rates, thereby limiting girls’ opportunities for academic success, personal growth and economic independence. The effects of early marriage extend beyond the individual, leading to broader societal implications, including the perpetuation of poverty, reduced labour force participation and persistent gender inequality. This article explores the multifaceted impact of early marriage on education, highlighting issues such as interrupted learning trajectories, limited career aspirations and erosion of self-confidence. The analysis also takes into account intergenerational effects, as young, uneducated mothers are less likely to prioritize their children’s education or facilitate their schooling, thus perpetuating a cycle of limited opportunities. It also examines the intersection between early marriage and health, as early pregnancies often jeopardize the well-being of both mother and child, while also hindering academic progress. To address this pressing issue, the study proposes a comprehensive approach, including enforcing strict child marriage laws, implementing culturally sensitive community outreach programs, and providing economic incentives to families to encourage school retention. Structural reforms are essential to create safe, inclusive, and accessible learning environments for girls, as well as targeted interventions to overcome the economic and social barriers they face. Collaborative efforts involving governments, civil society organizations, faith-based institutions, and local communities are essential to ensure that policies and programs are relevant and effective in context. Empowering girls through education is not only a basic human right, but also a catalyst for social transformation. By breaking the cycle of early marriage, societies can promote gender equality, improve economic stability, and advance the Sustainable Development Goals. This article highlights the urgent need to coordinate global and local efforts to prioritize education as a key strategy in the fight against early marriage and its long-term consequences.
HIV and Poverty: A Synergistic Challenge to Achieving Global Health Equity – Advanced Strategies for Integrated Solutions
The intersection of HIV and poverty represents a multifaceted and synergistic challenge that continues to undermine efforts to achieve global health equity. Poverty is a significant factor in vulnerability to HIV, limiting access to vital resources such as education, health care, and prevention programs. It creates environments in which individuals, particularly in marginalized and underserved communities, are at greater risk of exposure due to insufficient knowledge, limited access to protective measures, and limited health services. Conversely, HIV exacerbates poverty by placing heavy socio-economic burdens on affected individuals and families. The disease reduces labor force participation, drains family resources through high medical costs, and perpetuates stigma and discrimination, further exacerbating economic disadvantage. Together, these dynamics create a vicious circle that prevents sustainable development and perpetuates global inequality. This research provides an in-depth exploration of the complex and bidirectional relationship between HIV and poverty, highlighting the urgent need for integrated multi-sectoral interventions. It uses a comprehensive approach that includes qualitative and quantitative methodologies, case studies in highly affected regions, and advanced theoretical frameworks to analyze how these two phenomena are reinforced. Particular attention is paid to the systemic inequalities that support this double burden, including gender inequalities, lack of access to education and inadequate social safety nets. The study also highlights the transformative potential of innovative solutions that address these two challenges simultaneously. These include economic empowerment initiatives such as microfinance and income generation programs, expanding social protection systems to cushion economic shocks, and strategically integrating health care and HIV prevention services into the poverty reduction framework. In addition, community-based approaches that leverage local knowledge and promote inclusive participation are explored as essential avenues to ensure the sustainability of these interventions. The findings highlight the importance of a holistic and coordinated strategy that combines public health efforts with poverty reduction programs to create synergistic impact. By addressing the root causes and structural drivers of HIV and poverty, this research aims to inform policymakers, health care providers, and development practitioners on sustainable strategies that prioritize equity and inclusion. Ultimately, this study contributes to the global discourse on achieving health equity and sustainable development, providing actionable knowledge to break the cycle of HIV and poverty and improve the lives of vulnerable populations around the world.
Evaluating the Efficacy of Legal and Policy Frameworks in Mitigating HIV-Related Stigma: A Comparative Global Analysis of Legal Protections and Their Impact on Health Outcomes
HIV-related stigma remains one of the most persistent challenges to effective HIV prevention, treatment, and care worldwide. It profoundly impacts the health and well-being of individuals living with HIV by fostering discrimination, social exclusion, and psychological distress, which in turn affect their willingness to seek care and adhere to treatment regimens. Despite significant advancements in medical treatments, stigma continues to hinder efforts to control the spread of HIV, especially in resource-constrained settings where fear of disclosure often results in delayed diagnosis and inadequate care. Legal and policy frameworks play a critical role in addressing this challenge, offering protections against discrimination and promoting an inclusive healthcare environment that encourages individuals to seek the services they need without fear of judgment or reprisal. This study evaluates the effectiveness of legal and policy interventions aimed at reducing HIV-related stigma across diverse global contexts. Through a comparative analysis, the research examines how different countries and regions have implemented laws, regulations, and institutional strategies to protect the rights of people living with HIV, focusing on the protection of privacy, nondiscrimination in healthcare access, and the broader social and cultural challenges that contribute to stigma. By exploring specific legislative measures, such as antidiscrimination laws, mandatory HIV education in healthcare settings, and policies aimed at reducing HIV-related stigma in the workplace and other social spaces, this research aims to identify which interventions have been most successful in promoting positive health outcomes for individuals living with HIV. The study further investigates the broader impact of these legal frameworks on public health, including improvements in treatment adherence, engagement with prevention services, and overall health outcomes for HIV-positive individuals. It also explores the intersectionality of HIV-related stigma with other forms of social marginalization, such as gender, sexuality, and race, to understand how these factors influence the efficacy of legal protections. By drawing on case studies from various countries with differing levels of healthcare infrastructure and legal protections, the research provides a nuanced understanding of the challenges and successes in addressing HIV-related stigma. The findings offer key insights for policymakers, international organizations, and advocacy groups working to develop and refine legal frameworks that protect the rights of people living with HIV. Ultimately, the study aims to contribute to a global dialogue on the importance of legal reform in reducing HIV-related stigma, improving access to healthcare, and ensuring better health outcomes for people living with HIV.
Advanced Behavioral Interventions for HIV Prevention: Analyzing the Impact on Risk Reduction and the Transformation of Community Norms
The global HIV epidemic continues to be one of the most persistent and complex public health challenges, particularly in regions with high transmission rates, such as sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Eastern and Central Europe. Although significant progress has been made in the biomedical field, with the development and widespread use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), these measures alone are not sufficient to completely stop HIV transmission. Therefore, behavioral interventions remain an essential element in the fight against HIV/AIDS. These interventions address the underlying risk factors associated with HIV transmission, providing a holistic approach to prevention that complements biomedical strategies. This study aims to explore advanced behavioral interventions designed to reduce the risk of HIV transmission, focusing specifically on modifying high-risk behaviors and changing social and cultural norms related to HIV prevention. The study evaluates the effectiveness of these behavioral strategies, which include the promotion of safer sexual practices such as consistent condom use, regular HIV testing, and adherence to antiretroviral treatment regimens. Focusing on behavioral change, this study highlights the potential of these interventions to empower individuals and communities to take control of their health, reducing the risk of transmission. A key aspect of the study is to examine community-level interventions aimed at changing social norms, reducing HIV-related stigma and encouraging more people to seek prevention and treatment services. These interventions often face significant challenges due to prevailing cultural and social attitudes, which can constitute significant obstacles to effective HIV prevention. The study evaluates the role of programs that are based on peer education, health communication campaigns, and community mobilization efforts in changing these norms, providing an insight into how these approaches can promote a successful behavior change in high-risk populations. The study also considers the intersectionality of HIV prevention, recognizing that risk factors and prevention strategies differ significantly across groups. Tailored interventions that address the unique needs of specific populations, such as men who have sex with men (MSM), sex workers, adolescents, and people living with HIV, are explored in depth. This nuanced approach recognizes the diverse social, cultural, and economic factors that influence HIV risk and emphasizes the importance of personalized prevention strategies that address the realities and challenges these groups face. The research also underscores the need for an integrated approach to HIV prevention, which combines both behavioral and biomedical interventions. While ART and PrEP have proven effective in preventing HIV transmission, their success is often contingent upon behavioral factors such as adherence to treatment and prevention protocols. This study advocates for a comprehensive strategy that simultaneously addresses the biomedical aspects of HIV prevention while also fostering behavioral change within communities. It emphasizes the importance of understanding how behavior influences the uptake of biomedical interventions, such as ART and PrEP, and the role of community engagement in ensuring the success of these prevention strategies. By highlighting the significance of behavioral change, this research calls for a more nuanced and dynamic approach to HIV prevention. It proposes that a focus on community-driven efforts—such as peer-led education, stigma reduction campaigns, and health communication—coupled with the availability of biomedical solutions, offers the most promising route toward curbing the HIV epidemic. Ultimately, the study argues for the transformation of community norms surrounding HIV, advocating for an environment where HIV-related health practices are not only accepted but embraced. This holistic approach has the potential to reduce transmission rates, improve the quality of life for individuals living with HIV, and support global efforts toward the eradication of the epidemic. Through this research, actionable insights are provided for policymakers, health organizations, and public health practitioners, offering a comprehensive framework for improving global HIV prevention strategies. By integrating advanced behavioral interventions with biomedical advancements, the study aims to create a more supportive and effective environment for combating HIV, reducing transmission risks, and achieving the UNAIDS 95-95-95 targets for 2030.
Bridging Policy and Practice: A Critical Analysis of Zambian Government-Private Sector Collaborations in Achieving HIV Eradication by 2030
The global ambition to eradicate HIV/AIDS by 2030 requires comprehensive and collaborative efforts, particularly in high-burden countries like Zambia. As part of its response, the Zambian government has increasingly relied on the private sector to supplement its efforts to combat the epidemic. This study critically examines the interaction between policy and practice in these partnerships, focusing on how these partnerships contribute to achieving universal access to HIV prevention, treatment and care. Using a multidisciplinary approach, the research analyses existing policy frameworks, implementation mechanisms, and outcomes of government-private sector engagements in addressing the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Data were drawn from policy documents, stakeholder interviews, and case studies of successful and challenged partnerships. The findings show that while government-private sector partnerships have contributed to expanding access to HIV services (testing campaigns, resource mobilization, and innovation in service delivery), they are constrained by systemic issues. These include regulatory gaps, inconsistent funding models, limited data-sharing mechanisms, and socio-cultural stigma that hinders service uptake. The study highlights best practices, such as leveraging corporate social responsibility initiatives, integrating private sector resources into public health programs, and fostering innovation through technological and pharmaceutical advances. However, it also identifies critical barriers, such as policy inadequacies, inequities in resource allocation, and lack of stakeholder coordination, that limit the scalability and sustainability of these interventions. To overcome these challenges, research requires an adaptive and comprehensive regulatory framework that harmonizes the roles of government and private entities while fostering community engagement. Such a framework should prioritize transparency, equity, and efficiency to maximize the impact of partnerships. In addition, capacity-building efforts, sustainable financing, and improved monitoring and evaluation systems are essential to ensure sustainable progress. This analysis provides valuable insights and practical recommendations for strengthening synergies between the public and private sectors. By addressing existing gaps and leveraging collective strengths, Zambia can accelerate its journey toward ending HIV/AIDS by 2030, serving as a model for other nations pursuing similar goals.
Exploring the Formulation and Molecular Mechanisms of Antiretroviral Drugs: A Comparative Analysis of Protease Inhibitors, NRTIs, and Emerging Therapies in HIV Treatment
This study comprehensively examines the complex formulation and molecular mechanisms of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs, with an emphasis on the evolution of HIV therapeutic strategies. It first traces the path from the development of protease inhibitors (PIs), which played a key role in the early treatment of HIV, to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), which have become a mainstay of modern HIV treatment. The study also highlights the shift to newer and more innovative treatments that promise to improve outcomes for people living with HIV. The research presents an in-depth comparative analysis of the major classes of ARVs, exploring the chemical structures, molecular targets, and mechanisms of action that underlie their antiviral activity. It evaluates the pharmacokinetic profiles of these drugs, their efficacy in suppressing viral loads, and their ability to delay disease progression. In addition, the study evaluates the clinical performance of these ARVs, taking into account factors such as patient adherence, side effects and long-term outcomes. A significant portion of the study is dedicated to understanding the molecular interactions between ARVs and the HIV virus. It identifies critical challenges such as the emergence of drug-resistant strains of HIV, which complicate treatment regimens, and examines the mechanisms by which HIV mutates to evade the effects of antiretroviral therapy. The research also examines the side effects associated with ARVs, including toxicity and their impact on organ systems, and discusses challenges associated with drug formulation, such as bioavailability, stability and pill burden. In addition, the study examines the advent of next-generation HIV treatments. New treatment options include integrase inhibitors, which block the viral enzyme responsible for integrating HIV DNA into host cells, and long-acting injectable ARVs, which promise to reduce pill counts and improve patient compliance. Combination therapies, which combine multiple ARVs into a single regimen, are also being studied because they help improve viral suppression while minimizing the development of resistance. By analyzing these developments, the research provides valuable insights into innovations that will guide the future of HIV treatment. It also addresses strategies to overcome clinical barriers, such as optimizing treatment regimens to improve patient outcomes, and identifies key areas of interest for future research, including the need for more effective, sustainable, and personalized treatments. In doing so, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and advances in ARV drug design, resistance management, and treatment strategies, providing essential information for clinicians, pharmaceutical researchers, and policymakers working toward more effective HIV therapies worldwide.
Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs)
Assessing Student Empowerment and Public Health Outcomes through HIV Awareness Corners in Higher Education: A Multidisciplinary and Policy-Oriented Inquiry
This research critically examines the role of HIV awareness spaces in higher education institutions as a strategic mechanism to foster student empowerment and promote favorable public health outcomes. Recognizing the central role that educational institutions play in shaping social health behaviors, this study uses a multidisciplinary framework that includes education, public health, and policy analysis to assess the effectiveness of health awareness initiatives. The investigation examines how these designated awareness spaces, often characterized by posters, brochures, multimedia presentations and interactive discussions, serve as platforms to improve students' understanding of HIV transmission, prevention, care and the reduction of stigma. At the heart of this research, this research seeks to determine if HIV awareness areas can effectively empower students by providing them with the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to make informed decisions about their sexual health. In addition, the study examines the adverse effects of these initiatives to improve broader public health outcomes, including reducing HIV transmission rates, promoting regular testing and acceptance of people living with HIV. The study also explores the intersection between campus health education and national and regional public health campaigns, assessing how higher education institutions can serve as catalysts for broader social change. Using a mixed-methods research design, the study gathers qualitative and quantitative data from a variety of sources, including student-administered surveys, in-depth focus group discussions, and a critical examination of institutional and government health policies. These methodologies provide insights into students’ levels of awareness, attitudes, and behaviors before and after exposure to campus-based HIV awareness campaigns. The study also examines the sustainability and scalability of HIV awareness spaces, considering resource allocation, institutional commitment, and student participation rates. Through this comprehensive study, the research aims to provide practical recommendations for policymakers, educators, and public health advocates to improve HIV awareness and prevention efforts in higher education institutions. The findings highlight the importance of integrating HIV education into campus life as an essential part of a comprehensive public health strategy. By fostering an environment where students are not only informed but also empowered to take action, these awareness-raising initiatives can make a significant contribution to reducing the stigma surrounding HIV, increasing uptake of HIV testing and treatment, and ultimately having a long-term impact on public health outcomes at the local and global levels. The study calls for greater collaboration between higher education institutions, health authorities, and policymakers to create a supportive ecosystem that nurtures informed, proactive, and socially responsible future leaders in the fight against HIV.
Bibliometric Analysis of HIV/AIDS Research among University Students: Trends, Gaps, and Implications for Policy and Interventions
This study presents a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of HIV/AIDS research among college students to uncover emerging trends, critical research gaps, and implications for policy and intervention design. College students represent a unique demographic that is highly susceptible to HIV/AIDS-related risk behaviors and critical for shaping future social norms for health. Using data from peer-reviewed articles published between 2000 and 2025, the analysis systematically examines publication trends, geographic distribution, thematic focus, and collaboration patterns in the field. The study categorizes existing research into key thematic areas, including prevalence studies, behavioral risk factors, prevention strategies, psychosocial impacts of stigma, mental health considerations, and the role of digital technologies in health issues. The results reveal a steady increase in research volume over the past two decades, with significant contributions from Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and North America. Research findings in sub-Saharan Africa are particularly driven by the disproportionate burden of HIV/AIDS in the region. Despite this growth, the analysis identifies critical gaps, such as the underrepresentation of male university students, LGBTQ+ populations, and research examining the interaction between HIV/AIDS and digital behaviors, such as social media use and online health care research practices. In addition, the study highlights the lack of interdisciplinary and multi-institutional collaborations, which limits the reach of innovative solutions that address the broader social determinants of health, including socioeconomic inequalities and cultural stigma. The findings highlight the urgency of policies tailored to the specific vulnerabilities and behaviors of university students. For example, integrating HIV/AIDS education into campus health programs and adopting digital platforms for prevention campaigns can increase awareness and engagement. The study also advocates for interdisciplinary research approaches that connect public health, psychology, sociology, and technology to create holistic and sustainable intervention strategies. In addition, it calls for greater attention to marginalized groups in academia, such as LGBTQ+ students and international students, who may face particular vulnerabilities. By highlighting gaps and opportunities in the existing body of research, this bibliometric analysis provides guidance for researchers, policymakers, and health practitioners. It calls for a more nuanced understanding of the dynamics of HIV/AIDS among university students and the implementation of evidence-based interventions to effectively address this public health challenge. The study highlights the need for long-term, context-sensitive policies and programs that not only mitigate the prevalence of HIV/AIDS but also promote broader sexual and reproductive education, thereby fostering healthier and more inclusive academic communities in a globalized world.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Case Management Interventions in HIV Care: Impact on Treatment Adherence, Disclosure, and Patient Outcomes
HIV care is not limited to antiretroviral therapy (ART), but also includes addressing the complex psychosocial needs of people living with the virus. This comprehensive approach is often facilitated by case management interventions, which provide coordinated support for patients throughout their HIV care journey. These interventions are increasingly recognized for their potential to improve ART adherence, promote HIV status disclosure, and ultimately improve the quality of life and health outcomes of people living with HIV. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of HIV case management programs, with a focus on their impact on treatment adherence, the social dynamics of disclosure, and broader patient outcomes, such as mental health and overall well-being. A mixed methods research design was adopted to provide a holistic view of the effects of case management on patients. The quantitative component involved the analysis of antiretroviral treatment adherence rates among patients enrolled in case management programs in three health centers in sub-Saharan Africa. These centers were selected based on their established case management services and the high prevalence of HIV in the area. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy was monitored using a combination of electronic medication adherence monitoring tools and self-reported adherence questionnaires. The qualitative component of the study involved conducting in-depth interviews with patients and health care providers. These interviews explored patients' experiences of HIV case management interventions, focusing on their ability to manage HIV-related stigma, decision-making processes related to HIV disclosure their HIV status to family and peers, and the emotional and social support provided by case managers. Healthcare providers were also surveyed to gain insight into perceived challenges and successes in implementing case management strategies. The results show that case management interventions have a significant positive effect on adherence to antiretroviral treatment. Patients who received personalized care, including regular follow-up, counseling, and education, had higher adherence rates than those who were not enrolled in case management programs. In addition, these patients reported feeling more empowered in their ability to manage their HIV, both medically and socially. This was particularly evident in the context of discovery. Case management programs provide patients with the tools and emotional support to disclose their HIV status to family, peers, and in some cases the wider community. This finding, in turn, has helped reduce the stigma surrounding HIV, promoting better social integration and mental health outcomes. In addition, the study identified specific challenges that continue to undermine the effectiveness of case management interventions. These challenges include the persistence of social stigma, particularly among certain populations such as women and adolescents, which remains a significant barrier to treatment adherence and disclosure. While case management can provide support, it cannot completely eliminate the social and cultural barriers that patients face in disclosing their HIV status or adhering to treatment. The findings also highlighted the need for case management interventions to be culturally sensitive and adaptable to the unique needs of different populations. For example, in some settings, women may require different support mechanisms than men, and adolescent patients may face particular challenges in terms of autonomy and the ability to make informed decisions about their health. This study highlights the critical role that case management can play in improving HIV treatment outcomes, including improving adherence to antiretroviral therapy and facilitating detection. However, the research also highlights the importance of addressing broader social and cultural determinants of health, such as stigma, which continue to limit the effectiveness of case management interventions. Based on the findings, the study advocates for integrating case management into routine HIV care, alongside other complementary strategies such as community-based programs, mental health support, and risk reduction initiatives. Additionally, future research should focus on the scalability of case management models, exploring how they can be adapted to different healthcare settings, particularly in resource-limited settings, to ensure that people living with HIV can access the holistic care they need to lead healthier, more fulfilling lives.
Molecular Epidemiology of HIV-1 Subtypes: Exploring Transmission Dynamics, Viral Evolution, and Implications for Targeted Vaccine Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
HIV-1 continues to be a major global health problem, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where the epidemic remains most severe. Despite advances in treatment and prevention strategies, the persistence and spread of the virus in this region is influenced by a number of complex factors, including HIV-1 genetic diversity, human behavior, and socioeconomic conditions. One of the main areas of interest in understanding HIV-1 transmission in sub-Saharan Africa is the role of different viral subtypes, each of which has distinct characteristics that influence transmission dynamics and disease progression. Molecular epidemiology provides the tools needed to unravel the genetic makeup of HIV-1 subtypes and track their transmission patterns, providing valuable insights into how the virus spreads within communities, among populations, and across geographic regions. This study aims to examine the molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 subtypes circulating in sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on three predominant subtypes: A, C, and D. These subtypes are associated with varying degrees of transmissibility, pathogenesis, and treatment resistance, and their study can inform targeted prevention strategies. By analyzing viral genetic sequences, phylogenetic trees, and viral load data, the research explores the transmission dynamics of these subtypes, identifying key transmission networks and potential super-spreading events. The study also assesses how viral evolution in response to antiretroviral therapy (ART) affects subtype-specific mutations, treatment resistance, and the overall course of the epidemic. Understanding HIV-1 viral evolution is essential for the development of effective vaccines. This research highlights the need to integrate molecular epidemiology into vaccine design because sub-Saharan Africa is home to a diverse range of HIV-1 strains, which may require the development of vaccines that can target multiple subtypes simultaneously. Current vaccination efforts have been hampered by the complexity of the virus and its rapid evolution, making it imperative to take into account the genetic diversity of HIV-1 when developing new immunological interventions. In addition, the study highlights the importance of addressing structural factors, such as access to health care, stigma, and socio-cultural determinants, that influence the effectiveness of prevention and treatment strategies. Understanding how these factors interact with viral genetics could provide a more comprehensive approach to controlling the epidemic. The results of this study contribute to the global understanding of HIV transmission and evolution, providing insights for more effective and region-specific interventions. In conclusion, the molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 subtypes in sub-Saharan Africa plays an essential role in our understanding of the dynamics of virus transmission, its evolution, and the development of appropriate vaccination strategies. This study highlights the importance of continued investment in molecular research and public health initiatives to combat HIV/AIDS and mitigate its impact on affected populations in sub-Saharan Africa. By deepening our understanding of the genetic diversity of the virus and its transmission networks, we can advance global health goals, such as reducing new HIV infections and the ultimate goal of an HIV-free generation.
Navigating the Golden Hour: A PDSA-Driven Quality Improvement Initiative for Optimizing Ambulance Fleet Efficiency and Driver Logistics
Background: Emergency Medical Services (EMS) face heightened operational strain during public health crises, yet hospital management frameworks frequently overlook micro-level vulnerabilities within the transport vehicle and its operator, such as driver fatigue and unverified equipment readiness. Objectives: This study aimed to systematically evaluate prehospital vulnerabilities, design and deploy a dual-phase Ambulance Operational Checklist targeting four foundational pillars—driver roster automation, fleet efficiency, absolute equipment preparedness, and mandated driver rest—and implement a tailored training program to bridge frontline compliance gaps. Methods: A single-arm, quasi-experimental quality improvement initiative was conducted over a consecutive six-month period at a secondary care hospital in South India. Guided by the iterative Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) framework, the intervention involved an active fleet of four vehicles and its entire workforce of Emergency Medical Technicians (EMTs) and drivers. A mandatory 2-day simulation-based workshop was paired with continuous, objective monthly Quality Assurance (QA) audits. Results: Baseline assessments revealed critical institutional vulnerabilities, with a median technical competence score of 3/10. Following simulation-based training, median competence scores rose sharply to 9/10, representing a 200% increase in proficiency. Monthly QA audits over 6+ months demonstrated excellent longitudinal sustainability: tool compliance exceeded 95%+, dispatch delays dropped from 15–20 minutes to <10 minutes, and operational near-misses decreased by 70%. Roster automation eliminated overextended shifts, ensuring 100% adherence to an 8-hour shift ceiling and a standardized 12-hour inter-shift rest period, resulting in zero reported driver fatigue incidents. Conclusion: Utilizing an iterative PDSA cycle to balance mechanical readiness with human factor optimization effectively transitions reactive transport pools into highly reliable, safety-first clinical logistics systems. Joint simulation-based training builds an institutional culture of Crew Resource Management, sustaining operational vigilance and frontline patient safety without attrition.
Chemical Profiling of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) Seeds and Their Hematological Modulatory Effects in Adult Male Rabbits: A Dose-Response Study
This study investigated the phytochemical and nutritional composition of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) seeds and evaluated their effects on hematological parameters in male rabbits. The phytochemical analysis revealed appreciable levels of bioactive compounds, including total saponins (6.25 ± 0.42%), diosgenin (1.47 ± 0.08%), total flavonoids (37.84 ± 2.16 mg QE/g), total polyphenols (76.92 ± 4.35 mg GAE/g), and trigonelline (0.31 ± 0.02%). In addition, the seeds exhibited a high crude protein content (27.85 ± 1.12%) with moderate levels of fiber, moisture, and ash. Hematological evaluation showed that fenugreek supplementation significantly improved red blood cell count, hemoglobin concentration, and packed cell volume in treated groups compared with the control group, with dose-dependent variations. Mean corpuscular indices (MCV, MCH, and MCHC) remained relatively stable across all groups. Overall, fenugreek seed supplementation demonstrated a positive influence on hematological status in male rabbits, indicating its potential nutritional and physiological benefits.